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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Motion perception</span></span>

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<p><b>Motion perception</b> is the process of inferring the speed and direction of elements in a scene based on <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual</a>, <a href="Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">vestibular</a> and <a href="Proprioceptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprioceptive">proprioceptive</a> inputs. Although this process appears straightforward to most observers, it has proven to be a difficult problem from a computational perspective, and difficult to explain in terms of <a href="Neural" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural">neural</a> processing.

</p><p>Motion perception is studied by many disciplines, including <a href="Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> (i.e. <a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a>), <a href="Neurology" title="Neurology">neurology</a>, <a href="Neurophysiology" title="Neurophysiology">neurophysiology</a>, <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a>, and <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</h2></div>

<p>The inability to perceive motion is called <a href="Akinetopsia" title="Akinetopsia">akinetopsia</a> and it may be caused by a lesion to <a href="Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cortical</a> area <a href="Visual_cortex#V5/MT" title="Visual cortex">V5</a> in the <a href="Extrastriate_cortex" title="Extrastriate cortex">extrastriate cortex</a>. <a href="Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychological</a> studies of a patient who could not see motion, seeing the world in a series of static "frames" instead, suggested that visual area V5 in humans<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is homologous to motion processing area V5/MT in primates.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hess1989_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess1989-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baker1991_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker1991-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="First-order_motion_perception">First-order motion perception</h2></div>

<p>When two or more stimuli are alternatively switched on and off, they can produce two distinct motion perceptions. The first, known as <a href="Beta_movement" title="Beta movement">beta movement</a>, is demonstrated in the yellow-ball figure and forms the basis for electronic <a href="News_ticker" title="News ticker">news ticker</a> displays. However, at faster alternation rates, and when the distance between the stimuli is optimal, an illusory "object"—matching the background color—appears to move between the stimuli, alternately occluding them. This phenomenon is called the <a href="Phi_phenomenon" title="Phi phenomenon">phi phenomenon</a> and is often described as an example of "pure" motion detection, uncontaminated by form cues, unlike beta movement.<sup id="cite_ref-PhiIsNotBeta_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhiIsNotBeta-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, this description is somewhat paradoxical since creating such motion without figural percepts is impossible.

</p><p>The phi phenomenon has been referred to as "first-order" motion perception. Werner E. Reichardt and Bernard Hassenstein have modelled it in terms of relatively simple "motion sensors" in the visual system, that have evolved to detect a change in luminance at one point on the retina and correlate it with a change in luminance at a neighbouring point on the retina after a short delay. Sensors that are proposed to work this way have been referred to as either <i>Hassenstein-Reichardt detectors</i> after the scientists <a href="Bernhard_Hassenstein" title="Bernhard Hassenstein">Bernhard Hassenstein</a> and <a href="Werner_E._Reichardt" title="Werner E. Reichardt">Werner Reichardt</a>, who first modelled them,<sup id="cite_ref-Reichardt1961_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reichardt1961-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> motion-energy sensors,<sup id="cite_ref-AdelsonBergen_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AdelsonBergen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Elaborated Reichardt Detectors.<sup id="cite_ref-VanSantenSperling_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanSantenSperling-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sensors are described as detecting motion by spatio-temporal <a href="Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> and are considered by some to be plausible models for how the visual system may detect motion. (Although, again, the notion of a "pure motion" detector suffers from the problem that there is no "pure motion" stimulus, i.e. a stimulus lacking perceived figure/ground properties). There is still considerable debate regarding the accuracy of the model and exact nature of this proposed process. It is not clear how the model distinguishes between movements of the eyes and movements of objects in the visual field, both of which produce changes in luminance on points on the retina.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second-order_motion_perception">Second-order motion perception</h2></div>

<p><i>Second-order</i> motion is when the moving contour is defined by <a href="Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">contrast</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/texture" class="extiw external" title="wikt:texture">texture</a>, flicker or some other quality that does not result in an increase in luminance or motion energy in the <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier spectrum</a> of the stimulus.<sup id="cite_ref-CavanaghMather_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CavanaghMather-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ChubbSperling_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ChubbSperling-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is much evidence to suggest that early processing of first- and second-order motion is carried out by separate pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-Nishida_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nishida-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second-order mechanisms have poorer temporal resolution and are <a href="Low-pass_filter" title="Low-pass filter">low-pass</a> in terms of the range of <a href="Spatial_frequency" title="Spatial frequency">spatial frequencies</a> to which they respond. (The notion that neural responses are attuned to frequency components of stimulation suffers from the lack of a functional rationale and has been generally criticized by G. Westheimer (2001) in an article called "The Fourier Theory of Vision.") Second-order motion produces a weaker <a href="Motion_aftereffect" title="Motion aftereffect">motion aftereffect</a> unless tested with dynamically flickering stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-LedgewaySmith_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LedgewaySmith-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_aperture_problem">The aperture problem</h2></div>

<p>The motion direction of a contour is ambiguous, because the motion component parallel to the line cannot be inferred based on the visual input. This means that a variety of contours of different orientations moving at different speeds can cause identical responses in a motion sensitive neuron in the visual system.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motion_integration">Motion integration</h2></div>

<p>Some have speculated that, having extracted the hypothesized motion signals (first- or second-order) from the retinal image, the visual system must integrate those individual <i>local</i> motion signals at various parts of the visual field into a 2-dimensional or <i>global</i> representation of moving objects and surfaces. (It is not clear how this 2D representation is then converted into the perceived 3D percept) Further processing is required to detect coherent motion or "global motion" present in a scene.<sup id="cite_ref-BurrSantoro2001_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BurrSantoro2001-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The ability of a subject to detect coherent motion is commonly tested using motion coherence discrimination tasks. For these tasks, dynamic random-dot patterns (also called <i>random dot kinematograms</i>) are used that consist in 'signal' dots moving in one direction and 'noise' dots moving in random directions. The sensitivity to motion coherence is assessed by measuring the ratio of 'signal' to 'noise' dots required to determine the coherent motion direction. The required ratio is called the <i>motion coherence threshold</i>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motion_in_depth">Motion in depth</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Monocular_depth_cues" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocular depth cues">Monocular depth cues</a>, <a href="Structure_from_motion" title="Structure from motion">Structure from motion</a>, and <a href="Stereoscopic_motion" title="Stereoscopic motion">Stereoscopic motion</a></div>

<p>As in other aspects of vision, the observer's visual input is generally insufficient to determine the true nature of stimulus sources, in this case their velocity in the real world. In <a href="Monocular_vision" title="Monocular vision">monocular vision</a> for example, the visual input will be a 2D projection of a 3D scene. The motion cues present in the 2D projection will by default be insufficient to reconstruct the motion present in the 3D scene. Put differently, many 3D scenes will be compatible with a single 2D projection. The problem of motion estimation generalizes to <a href="Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular vision</a> when we consider occlusion or motion perception at relatively large distances, where <a href="Binocular_disparity" title="Binocular disparity">binocular disparity</a> is a poor cue to depth. This fundamental difficulty is referred to as the <a href="Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">inverse problem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nonetheless, some humans do perceive motion in depth. There are indications that the brain uses various cues, in particular temporal changes in disparity as well as monocular velocity ratios, for producing a sensation of motion in depth.<sup id="cite_ref-BlakeWilson2011_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlakeWilson2011-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two different binocular cues of the perception motion in depth are hypothesized: Inter-ocular velocity difference (IOVD) and changing disparity (CD) over time. Motion in depth based on inter-ocular velocity differences can be tested using dedicated binocularly uncorrelated random-dot kinematograms.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study results indicate that the processing of these two binocular cues – IOVD and CD – may use fundamentally different low-level stimulus features, which may be processed jointly that later stages.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33362456_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33362456-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, as monocular cue, also the changing size of retinal images contributes to motion in depth detection.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Perceptual_learning_of_motion"><a href="Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">Perceptual learning</a> of motion</h2></div>

<p>Detection and discrimination of motion can be improved by training with long-term results. Participants trained to detect the movements of dots on a screen in only one direction become particularly good at detecting small movements in the directions around that in which they have been trained. This improvement was still present 10 weeks later. However <a href="Perceptual_learning" title="Perceptual learning">perceptual learning</a> is highly specific. For example, the participants show no improvement when tested around other motion directions, or for other sorts of stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cognitive_map">Cognitive map</h2></div>

<p>A <a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">cognitive map</a> is a type of mental representation which serves an individual to acquire, code, store, recall, and decode information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in their spatial environment.

<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Place_cell" title="Place cell">Place cells</a> work with other types of <a href="Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> in the <a href="Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> and surrounding regions of the brain to perform this kind of spatial processing,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the ways in which they function within the hippocampus are still being researched.<sup id="cite_ref-Redei_2008_1501_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Redei_2008_1501-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many species of mammals can keep track of spatial location even in the absence of visual, auditory, olfactory, or tactile cues, by integrating their movements—the ability to do this is referred to in the literature as <a href="Path_integration" title="Path integration">path integration</a>. A number of theoretical models have explored mechanisms by which path integration could be performed by <a href="Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">neural networks</a>. In most models, such as those of Samsonovich and McNaughton (1997)<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Burak and Fiete (2009),<sup id="cite_ref-Burak2009_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burak2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the principal ingredients are (1) an internal representation of position, (2) internal representations of the speed and direction of movement, and (3) a mechanism for shifting the encoded position by the right amount when the animal moves. Because cells in the <a href="Entorhinal_cortex" title="Entorhinal cortex">Medial Entorhinal Cortex (MEC)</a> encode information about position (<a href="Grid_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid cells">grid cells</a><sup id="cite_ref-Hafting2005_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hafting2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and movement (<a href="Head_direction_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Head direction cells">head direction cells</a> and conjunctive position-by-direction cells<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), this area is currently viewed as the most promising candidate for the place in the brain where path integration occurs.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurophysiology">Neurophysiology</h2></div>

<p>Motion sensing using vision is crucial for detecting a potential mate, prey, or predator, and thus it is found both in vertebrates and invertebrates vision throughout a wide variety of species, although it is not universally found in all species. In vertebrates, the process takes place in retina and more specifically in <a href="Retinal_ganglion_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal ganglion cells">retinal ganglion cells</a>, which are neurons that receive input from <a href="Bipolar_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipolar cells">bipolar cells</a> and <a href="Amacrine_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Amacrine cells">amacrine cells</a> on visual information and process output to higher regions of the brain including, thalamus, hypothalamus, and mesencephalon.

</p><p>The study of directionally selective units began with a discovery of such cells in the cerebral cortex of cats by <a href="David_Hubel" class="mw-redirect" title="David Hubel">David Hubel</a> and <a href="Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a> in 1959. Following the initial report, an attempt to understand the mechanism of directionally selective cells was pursued by <a href="Horace_B._Barlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Horace B. Barlow">Horace B. Barlow</a> and William R. Levick in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-barlev_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barlev-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their in-depth experiments in rabbit's retina expanded the anatomical and physiological understanding of the vertebrate visual system and ignited the interest in the field. Numerous studies that followed thereafter have unveiled the mechanism of motion sensing in vision for the most part. <a href="Alexander_Borst" title="Alexander Borst">Alexander Borst</a> and Thomas Euler's 2011 review paper, "Seeing Things in Motion: Models, Circuits and Mechanisms".<sup id="cite_ref-boreul_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boreul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discusses certain important findings from the early discoveries to the recent work on the subject, coming to the conclusion of the current status of the knowledge.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direction_selective_(DS)_cells">Direction selective (DS) cells</h3></div>

<p>Direction selective (DS) cells in the retina are defined as neurons that respond differentially to the direction of a visual stimulus. According to Barlow and Levick (1965), the term is used to describe a group of neurons that "gives a vigorous discharge of impulses when a stimulus object is moved through its receptive field in one direction."<sup id="cite_ref-barlev_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barlev-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This direction in which a set of neurons respond most strongly to is their "preferred direction". In contrast, they do not respond at all to the opposite direction, "null direction". The preferred direction is not dependent on the stimulus—that is, regardless of the stimulus' size, shape, or color, the neurons respond when it is moving in their preferred direction, and do not respond if it is moving in the null direction. There are three known types of DS cells in the vertebrate retina of the mouse, ON/OFF DS ganglion cells, ON DS ganglion cells, and OFF DS ganglion cells. Each has a distinctive physiology and anatomy. Analogous directionally selective cells are not thought to exist in the primate retina.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ON/OFF_DS_ganglion_cells">ON/OFF DS ganglion cells</h4></div>

<p>ON/OFF DS ganglion cells act as local motion detectors. They fire at the onset and offset of a stimulus (a light source). If a stimulus is moving in the direction of the cell's preference, it will fire at the leading and the trailing edge. Their firing pattern is time-dependent and is supported by the <a href="Werner_E._Reichardt" title="Werner E. Reichardt">Reichardt</a>-<a href="Bernhard_Hassenstein" title="Bernhard Hassenstein">Hassenstain</a> model, which detects spatiotemporal correlation between the two adjacent points. The detailed explanation of the Reichardt-Hassenstain model will be provided later in the section.

The anatomy of ON/OFF cells is such that the dendrites extend to two sublaminae of the inner plexiform layer and make synapses with bipolar and amacrine cells. They have four subtypes, each with its own preference for direction.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ON_DS_ganglion_cells">ON DS ganglion cells</h4></div>

<p>Unlike ON/OFF DS ganglion cells that respond both to the leading and the trailing edge of a stimulus, ON DS ganglion cells are responsive only to a leading edge. The dendrites of ON DS ganglion cells are monostratified and extend into the inner sublamina of the inner plexiform layer. They have three subtypes with different directional preferences.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="OFF_DS_ganglion_cells">OFF DS ganglion cells</h4></div>

<p>OFF DS ganglion cells act as a centripetal motion detector, and they respond only to the trailing edge of a stimulus. They are tuned to upward motion of a stimulus. The dendrites are asymmetrical and arbor in to the direction of their preference.<sup id="cite_ref-boreul_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boreul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DS_cells_in_insects">DS cells in insects</h3></div>

<p>The first DS cells in invertebrates were found in <a href="Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a> in a brain structure called the <a href="Lobula_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobula plate">lobula plate</a>. The lobula plate is one of the three stacks of the <a href="Neuropils" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropils">neuropils</a> in the fly's <a href="Optic_lobe_(arthropods)" title="Optic lobe (arthropods)">optic lobe</a>. The "tangential cells" of the <a href="Lobula_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobula plate">lobula plate</a> composed of roughly about 50 neurons, and they arborize extensively in the neuropile. The tangential cells are known to be directionally selective with distinctive directional preference. One of which is Horizontally Sensitive (HS) cells, such as the <a href="H1_neuron" title="H1 neuron">H1 neuron</a>, that depolarize most strongly in response to stimulus moving in a horizontal direction (preferred direction). On the other hand, they hyperpolarize when the direction of motion is opposite (null direction). Vertically Sensitive (VS) cells are another group of cells that are most sensitive to vertical motion. They depolarize when a stimulus is moving downward and hyperpolarize when it is moving upward. Both HS and VS cells respond with a fixed preferred direction and a null direction regardless of the color or contrast of the background or the stimulus.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hassenstein-Reichardt_model">The Hassenstein-Reichardt model</h3></div>

<p>It is now known that motion detection in vision is based on the Hassenstein-Reichardt detector model.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a model used to detect correlation between the two adjacent points. It consists of two symmetrical subunits. Both subunits have a receptor that can be stimulated by an input (light in the case of visual system). In each subunit, when an input is received, a signal is sent to the other subunit. At the same time, the signal is delayed in time within the subunit, and after the temporal filter, is then multiplied by the signal received from the other subunit. Thus, within each subunit, the two brightness values, one received directly from its receptor with a time delay and the other received from the adjacent receptor, are multiplied. The multiplied values from the two subunits are then subtracted to produce an output. The direction of selectivity or preferred direction is determined by whether the difference is positive or negative. The direction which produces a positive outcome is the preferred direction.

</p><p>In order to confirm that the Reichardt-Hassenstein model accurately describes the directional selectivity in the retina, the study was conducted using optical recordings of free cytosolic calcium levels after loading a fluorescent indicator dye into the fly tangential cells. The fly was presented uniformly moving gratings while the calcium concentration in the dendritic tips of the tangential cells was measured. The tangential cells showed modulations that matched the temporal frequency of the gratings, and the velocity of the moving gratings at which the neurons respond most strongly showed a close dependency on the pattern wavelength. This confirmed the accuracy of the model both at the cellular and the behavioral level.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Although the details of the Hassenstein-Reichardt model have not been confirmed at an anatomical and physiological level, the site of subtraction in the model is now being localized to the tangential cells. When depolarizing current is injected into the tangential cell while presenting a visual stimulus, the response to the preferred direction of motion decreased, and the response to the null direction increased. The opposite was observed with hyperpolarizing current. The T4 and T5 cells, which have been selected as a strong candidate for providing input to the tangential cells, have four subtypes that each project into one of the four strata of the lobula plate that differ in the preferred orientation.<sup id="cite_ref-boreul_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boreul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DS_cells_in_vertebrates">DS cells in vertebrates</h3></div>

<p>One of the early works on DS cells in vertebrates was done on the rabbit retina by H. Barlow and W. Levick in 1965. Their experimental methods include variations to the slit-experiments and recording of the action potentials in the rabbit retina. The basic set-up of the slit experiment was they presented a moving black-white grating through a slit of various widths to a rabbit and recorded the action potentials in the retina. This early study had a large impact on the study of DS cells by laying down the foundation for later studies. The study showed that DS ganglion cells derive their property from the basis of sequence-discriminating activity of subunits, and that this activity may be the result of inhibitory mechanism in response to the motion of image in the null direction. It also showed that the DS property of retinal ganglion cells is distributed over the entire receptive field, and not limited to specific zones. Direction selectivity is contained for two adjacent points in the receptive field separated by as small as 1/4°, but selectivity decreased with larger separations. They used this to support their hypothesis that discrimination of sequences gives rise to direction selectivity because normal movement would activate adjacent points in a succession.<sup id="cite_ref-barlev_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barlev-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molecular_identity_and_structure_of_DS_cells_in_mice">Molecular identity and structure of DS cells in mice</h3></div>

<p>ON/OFF DS ganglion cells can be divided into 4 subtypes differing in their directional preference, ventral, dorsal, nasal, or temporal. The cells of different subtypes also differ in their dendritic structure and synaptic targets in the brain. The neurons that were identified to prefer ventral motion were also found to have dendritic projections in the ventral direction. Also, the neurons that prefer nasal motion had asymmetric dendritic extensions in the nasal direction. Thus, a strong association between the structural and functional asymmetry in ventral and nasal direction was observed. With a distinct property and preference for each subtype, there was an expectation that they could be selectively labeled by molecular markers. The neurons that were preferentially responsive to vertical motion were indeed shown to be selectively expressed by a specific molecular marker. However, molecular markers for other three subtypes have not been yet found.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neural_mechanism:_starburst_amacrine_cells">Neural mechanism: starburst amacrine cells</h3></div>

<p>The direction selective (DS) ganglion cells receive inputs from bipolar cells and <a href="Starburst_amacrine_cell" title="Starburst amacrine cell">starburst amacrine cells</a>. The DS ganglion cells respond to their preferred direction with a large excitatory postsynaptic potential followed by a small inhibitory response. On the other hand, they respond to their null direction with a simultaneous small excitatory postsynaptic potential and a large inhibitory postsynaptic potential. Starburst amacrine cells have been viewed as a strong candidate for direction selectivity in ganglion cells because they can release both GABA and Ach. Their dendrites branch out radiantly from a soma, and there is a significant dendritic overlap. Optical measurements of Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration showed that they respond strongly to the centrifugal motion (the outward motion from the soma to the dendrites), while they don't respond well to the centripetal motion (the inward motion from the dendritic tips to the soma).

When the starburst cells were ablated with toxins, direction selectivity was eliminated. Moreover, their release of neurotransmitters itself, specifically calcium ions, reflect direction selectivity, which may be presumably attributed to the synaptic pattern. The branching pattern is organized such that certain presynaptic input will have more influence on a given dendrite than others, creating a polarity in excitation and inhibition. Further evidence suggests that starburst cells release inhibitory neurotransmitters, GABA onto each other in a delayed and prolonged manner. This accounts for the temporal property of inhibition.<sup id="cite_ref-boreul_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boreul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In addition to spatial offset due to GABAergic synapses, the important role of chloride transporters has started to be discussed. The popular hypothesis is that starburst amacrine cells differentially express chloride transporters along the dendrites. Given this assumption, some areas along the dendrite will have a positive chloride-ion equilibrium potential relative to the resting potential while others have a negative equilibrium potential. This means that GABA at one area will be depolarizing and at another area hyperpolarizing, accounting for the spatial offset present between excitation and inhibition.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Recent research (published March 2011) relying on <a href="Serial_block-face_scanning_electron_microscopy" title="Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy">serial block-face electron microscopy</a> (SBEM) has led to identification of the circuitry that influences directional selectivity. This new technique provides detailed images of calcium flow and anatomy of dendrites of both <a href="Starburst_amacrine_cell" title="Starburst amacrine cell">starburst amacrine</a> (SAC) and DS ganglion cells. By comparing the preferred directions of ganglion cells with their synapses on SAC's, Briggman et al. provide evidence for a mechanism primarily based on inhibitory signals from SAC's<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on an oversampled serial block-face scanning electron microscopy study of one sampled retina, that retinal ganglion cells may receive asymmetrical inhibitory inputs directly from starburst amacrine cells, and therefore computation of directional selectivity also occurs postsynaptically. Such postsynaptic models are unparsimonious, and so if any given starburst amacrine cells conveys motion information to retinal ganglion cells then any computing of 'local' direction selectivity postsynaptically by retinal ganglion cells is redundant and dysfunctional. An <a href="Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> (ACh) transmission model of directionally selective starburst amacrine cells provides a robust topological underpinning of a motion sensing in the retina.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Barber's_pole" title="Barber's pole">Barber's pole</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_motion" title="Biological motion">Biological motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_map" title="Cognitive map">Cognitive map</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_movement_(sensory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye movement (sensory)">Eye movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Ganzfeld_effect" title="Ganzfeld effect">Ganzfeld effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Illusory_motion" title="Illusory motion">Illusory motion</a></li>

<li><a href="Induced_movement" title="Induced movement">Induced movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Jerkiness" title="Jerkiness">Jerkiness</a></li>

<li><a href="Lilac_chaser" title="Lilac chaser">Lilac chaser</a></li>

<li><a href="Max_Wertheimer" title="Max Wertheimer">Max Wertheimer</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_aftereffect" title="Motion aftereffect">Motion aftereffect</a></li>

<li><a href="Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">Motion (physics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_flow" title="Optical flow">Optical flow</a></li>

<li><a href="Peripheral_drift_illusion" title="Peripheral drift illusion">Peripheral drift illusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Persistence_of_vision" title="Persistence of vision">Persistence of vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulfrich_effect" title="Pulfrich effect">Pulfrich effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Strobe_light" title="Strobe light">Strobe light</a></li>

<li><a href="Stroboscopic_effect" title="Stroboscopic effect">Stroboscopic effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_modularity#Motion_processing" title="Visual modularity">Visual modularity#Motion processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a></li>

<li><a href="Wagon-wheel_effect" title="Wagon-wheel effect">Wagon-wheel effect</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHassensteinReichardt1956" class="citation journal cs1">Hassenstein B, Reichardt W (1956-10-01). "Systemtheoretische Analyse der Zeit-, Reihenfolgen- und Vorzeichenauswertung bei der Bewegungsperzeption des Rüsselkäfers Chlorophanus". <i>Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B</i>. <b>11</b> (<span class="nowrap">9–</span>10): <span class="nowrap">513–</span>524. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fznb-1956-9-1004">10.1515/znb-1956-9-1004</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11858%2F00-001M-0000-0013-F2EA-6">11858/00-001M-0000-0013-F2EA-6</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1865-7117">1865-7117</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:98709700">98709700</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHaagDenkBorst2004" class="citation journal cs1">Haag J, Denk W, Borst A (November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC526200">"Fly motion vision is based on Reichardt detectors regardless of the signal-to-noise ratio"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>101</b> (46): <span class="nowrap">16333–</span>8. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10116333H">2004PNAS..10116333H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0407368101">10.1073/pnas.0407368101</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC526200">526200</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15534201">15534201</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKayDe_la_HuertaKimZhang2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kay JN, De la Huerta I, Kim IJ, Zhang Y, Yamagata M, Chu MW, et al. (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108146">"Retinal ganglion cells with distinct directional preferences differ in molecular identity, structure, and central projections"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>31</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">7753–</span>62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2Fjneurosci.0907-11.2011">10.1523/jneurosci.0907-11.2011</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108146">3108146</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613488">21613488</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDemb2007" class="citation journal cs1">Demb JB (July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.07.001">"Cellular mechanisms for direction selectivity in the retina"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>55</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">179–</span>86. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.07.001">10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.001</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17640521">17640521</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5691739">5691739</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBriggmanHelmstaedterDenk2011" class="citation journal cs1">Briggman KL, Helmstaedter M, Denk W (March 2011). "Wiring specificity in the direction-selectivity circuit of the retina". <i>Nature</i>. <b>471</b> (7337): <span class="nowrap">183–</span>8. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.471..183B">2011Natur.471..183B</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature09818">10.1038/nature09818</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21390125">21390125</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4425160">4425160</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPoznanski2010" class="citation journal cs1">Poznanski RR (September 2010). "Cellular inhibitory behavior underlying the formation of retinal direction selectivity in the starburst network". <i>Journal of Integrative Neuroscience</i>. <b>9</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">299–</span>335. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2Fs0219635210002457">10.1142/s0219635210002457</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21064220">21064220</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBorst2007" class="citation journal cs1">Borst A (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2323555">"Correlation versus gradient type motion detectors: the pros and cons"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>362</b> (1479): <span class="nowrap">369–</span>74. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1964">10.1098/rstb.2006.1964</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2323555">2323555</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17255025">17255025</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBorstEuler2011" class="citation journal cs1">Borst A, Euler T (September 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2011.08.031">"Seeing things in motion: models, circuits, and mechanisms"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>71</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">974–</span>94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2011.08.031">10.1016/j.neuron.2011.08.031</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21943597">21943597</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8408814">8408814</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFCarverRothCowanFortune2008" class="citation journal cs1">Carver S, Roth E, Cowan NJ, Fortune ES (February 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2242823">"Synaptic plasticity can produce and enhance direction selectivity"</a>. <i>PLOS Computational Biology</i>. <b>4</b> (2): e32. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PLSCB...4...32C">2008PLSCB...4...32C</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pcbi.0040032">10.1371/journal.pcbi.0040032</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2242823">2242823</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18282087">18282087</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDemb2007" class="citation journal cs1">Demb JB (July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.07.001">"Cellular mechanisms for direction selectivity in the retina"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>55</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">179–</span>86. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.neuron.2007.07.001">10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.001</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17640521">17640521</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5691739">5691739</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDouglassStrausfeld1996" class="citation journal cs1">Douglass JK, Strausfeld NJ (August 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6579027">"Visual motion-detection circuits in flies: parallel direction- and non-direction-sensitive pathways between the medulla and lobula plate"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>16</b> (15): <span class="nowrap">4551–</span>62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.16-15-04551.1996">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.16-15-04551.1996</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6579027">6579027</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8764644">8764644</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Grzywacz, Norberto M., and Franklin R. Amthor. "Robust Directional Computation in On-off Directionally Selective Ganglion Cells of Rabbit Retina." <i>Visual Neuroscience</i> 24.04 (2007).</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHaagDenkBorst2004" class="citation journal cs1">Haag J, Denk W, Borst A (November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC526200">"Fly motion vision is based on Reichardt detectors regardless of the signal-to-noise ratio"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>101</b> (46): <span class="nowrap">16333–</span>8. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..10116333H">2004PNAS..10116333H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0407368101">10.1073/pnas.0407368101</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC526200">526200</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15534201">15534201</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHadadMaurerLewis2011" class="citation journal cs1">Hadad BS, Maurer D, Lewis TL (November 2011). "Long trajectory for the development of sensitivity to global and biological motion". <i>Developmental Science</i>. <b>14</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1330–</span>9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-7687.2011.01078.x">10.1111/j.1467-7687.2011.01078.x</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22010893">22010893</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJagadeeshWheatKontsevichTyler1997" class="citation journal cs1">Jagadeesh B, Wheat HS, Kontsevich LL, Tyler CW, Ferster D (November 1997). "Direction selectivity of synaptic potentials in simple cells of the cat visual cortex". <i>Journal of Neurophysiology</i>. <b>78</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">2772–</span>89. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjn.1997.78.5.2772">10.1152/jn.1997.78.5.2772</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9356425">9356425</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKayDe_la_HuertaKimZhang2011" class="citation journal cs1">Kay JN, De la Huerta I, Kim IJ, Zhang Y, Yamagata M, Chu MW, et al. (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108146">"Retinal ganglion cells with distinct directional preferences differ in molecular identity, structure, and central projections"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>31</b> (21): <span class="nowrap">7753–</span>62. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2Fjneurosci.0907-11.2011">10.1523/jneurosci.0907-11.2011</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3108146">3108146</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613488">21613488</a>.</cite></li>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFVaneyTaylor2002" class="citation journal cs1">Vaney DI, Taylor WR (August 2002). "Direction selectivity in the retina". <i>Current Opinion in Neurobiology</i>. <b>12</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">405–</span>10. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0959-4388%2802%2900337-9">10.1016/s0959-4388(02)00337-9</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12139988">12139988</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37550073">37550073</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWässle2001" class="citation journal cs1">Wässle H (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0896-6273%2801%2900335-x">"Knock out of direction selectivity in the retina"</a>. <i>Neuron</i>. <b>30</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">644–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0896-6273%2801%2900335-x">10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00335-x</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11430796">11430796</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:824588">824588</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYoneharaIshikaneSakutaShintani2009" class="citation journal cs1">Yonehara K, Ishikane H, Sakuta H, Shintani T, Nakamura-Yonehara K, Kamiji NL, et al. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629575">"Identification of retinal ganglion cells and their projections involved in central transmission of information about upward and downward image motion"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>4</b> (1): e4320. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009PLoSO...4.4320Y">2009PLoSO...4.4320Y</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004320">10.1371/journal.pone.0004320</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629575">2629575</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19177171">19177171</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZhouLee2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zhou ZJ, Lee S (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2614022">"Synaptic physiology of direction selectivity in the retina"</a>. <i>The Journal of Physiology</i>. <b>586</b> (18): <span class="nowrap">4371–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fjphysiol.2008.159020">10.1113/jphysiol.2008.159020</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2614022">2614022</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18617561">18617561</a>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121210193604/http://neurovision.berkeley.edu/Demonstrations/matthew/reichardt.html">Interactive Reichardt Detector</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGJYSIBETho">Video demonstrating second-order motion perception</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siliconmentor.com/visual-motion-analysis/">Visual Motion Analysis</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labs_specialising_in_motion_research">Labs specialising in motion research</h3></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190202020403/http://www.psychology.nottingham.ac.uk/research/vision/">Visual Neuroscience</a>, <a href="University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070822154402/http://mvr.mcgill.ca/home.html">McGill Vision Research</a>, <a href="McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130112060439/http://www.purveslab.net/main">Purves Lab</a>, <a href="Duke_University" title="Duke University">Duke University</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cvr.yorku.ca/home/">Center for Vision Research</a>, <a href="York_University" title="York University">York University</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ilab.usc.edu/">iLab</a>, <a href="University_of_Southern_California" title="University of Southern California">University of Southern California</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121102224952/http://www.cin.uni-tuebingen.de/research/bartels.php">Vision and Cognition</a>, <a href="University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Sensation_and_perception287" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a> and <a href="Perception" title="Perception">perception</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cognitive_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive process">Processes <br>and <br>concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Sensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Stimulus</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(physiology)" title="Transduction (physiology)">Transduction (physiology)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing" title="Sensory processing">Sensory processing</a></li>

<li><a href="Active_sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Active sensory system">Active sensory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Multimodal_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Multimodal integration">Multimodal integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Awareness" title="Awareness">Awareness</a></li>

<li><a href="Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li>

<li><a href="Feeling" title="Feeling">Feeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Human" title="Human">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Exteroception" class="mw-redirect" title="Exteroception">External</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_organ" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory organ">Sensory organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Inner_ear" title="Inner ear">Inner ear</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_system" title="Visual system">Visual system (sense of vision)</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_system" title="Auditory system">Auditory system (sense of hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_system" title="Vestibular system">Vestibular system (sense of balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_system" title="Olfactory system">Olfactory system (sense of smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gustatory system">Gustatory system (sense of taste)</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">Somatosensory system (sense of touch)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sensory <a href="Cranial_nerves" title="Cranial nerves">cranial</a> and <a href="Spinal_nerves" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal nerves">spinal nerves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic (II)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibulocochlear_nerve" title="Vestibulocochlear nerve">Vestibulocochlear (VIII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_nerve" title="Olfactory nerve">Olfactory (I)</a></li>

<li><a href="Facial_nerve" title="Facial nerve">Facial (VII)</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossopharyngeal_nerve" title="Glossopharyngeal nerve">Glossopharyngeal (IX)</a></li>

<li><a href="Trigeminal_nerve" title="Trigeminal nerve">Trigeminal (V)</a></li>

<li><a href="Spinal_nerve" title="Spinal nerve">Spinal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sensory_cortex" title="Sensory cortex">Cerebral cortices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_cortex" title="Visual cortex">Visual cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_cortex" title="Auditory cortex">Auditory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Vestibular_cortex" title="Vestibular cortex">Vestibular cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory cortex">Olfactory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Gustatory_cortex" title="Gustatory cortex">Gustatory cortex</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatosensory_cortex" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatosensory cortex">Somatosensory cortex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Perceptions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception (vision)</a>

<ul><li><a href="Color" title="Color">Color</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_perception" class="mw-redirect" title="Auditory perception">Auditory perception (hearing)</a></li>

<li><a href="Equilibrioception" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrioception">Equilibrioception (balance)</a></li>

<li><a href="Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">Olfaction (smell)</a></li>

<li><a href="Taste" title="Taste">Gustation (taste or flavor)</a></li>

<li><a href="Touch" class="mw-redirect" title="Touch">Touch</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mechanoreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanoreception">mechanoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Nociception" title="Nociception">nociception (pain)</a></li>

<li><a href="Thermoception" title="Thermoception">thermoception</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Interoception" title="Interoception">Internal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proprioception" title="Proprioception">Proprioception</a></li>

<li><a href="Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">Hunger</a></li>

<li><a href="Thirst" title="Thirst">Thirst</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Suffocation">Suffocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nausea" title="Nausea">Nausea</a></li>

<li><a href="Visceral_pain" title="Visceral pain">Visceral pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nonhuman" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhuman">Nonhuman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sense" title="Sense">Animal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Electroreception" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroreception">Electroreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">Magnetoreception</a></li>

<li><a href="Animal_echolocation" title="Animal echolocation">Echolocation</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_vampire_bats" title="Infrared sensing in vampire bats">Infrared sensing in vampire bats</a></li>

<li><a href="Infrared_sensing_in_snakes" title="Infrared sensing in snakes">Infrared sensing in snakes</a></li>

<li><a href="Surface_wave_detection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface wave detection">Surface wave detection</a></li>

<li><a href="Frog_hearing_and_communication" title="Frog hearing and communication">Frog hearing</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision_in_toads" title="Vision in toads">Toad vision</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Plant_perception_(physiology)" title="Plant perception (physiology)">Plant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photomorphogenesis" title="Photomorphogenesis">Photomorphogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Gravitropism" title="Gravitropism">Gravitropism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Machine_perception" title="Machine perception">Artificial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Robotic_sensing" title="Robotic sensing">Robotic sensing</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine hearing">Machine hearing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <br><a href="Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">Mechanoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Baroreceptor" title="Baroreceptor">Baroreceptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanotransduction" title="Mechanotransduction">Mechanotransduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Lamellar_corpuscle" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamellar corpuscle">Lamellar corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Tactile corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li>

<li><a href="Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Bulbous corpuscle</a></li>

<li><a href="Campaniform_sensilla" title="Campaniform sensilla">Campaniform sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Slit_sensilla" title="Slit sensilla">Slit sensilla</a></li>

<li><a href="Stretch_receptor" title="Stretch receptor">Stretch receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Photoreceptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li>

<li><a href="IpRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IpRGC">ipRGC</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopigment" title="Photopigment">Photopigment</a></li>

<li><a href="Aureochromes" title="Aureochromes">Aureochrome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Chemoreceptor" title="Chemoreceptor">Chemoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_receptor" title="Olfactory receptor">Olfactory receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmoreceptor" title="Osmoreceptor">Osmoreceptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Thermoreceptor" title="Thermoreceptor">Thermoreceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cilium#Sensing_the_extracellular_environment" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="TRP_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="TRP channels">TRP channels</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nociceptin_receptor#Pain_circuitry" title="Nociceptin receptor">Nociceptin receptor</a></li>

<li><a href="Juxtacapillary_receptors" title="Juxtacapillary receptors">Juxtacapillary receptor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li>

<li><a href="Alice_in_Wonderland_syndrome" title="Alice in Wonderland syndrome">Alice in Wonderland syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Amaurosis" title="Amaurosis">Amaurosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a> and <a href="Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></li>

<li><a href="Oscillopsia" title="Oscillopsia">Oscillopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li>

<li><a href="Photopsia" title="Photopsia">Photopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cerebral_polyopia" title="Cerebral polyopia">Polyopia</a></li>

<li><a href="Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li>

<li><a href="Stereoblindness" title="Stereoblindness">Stereoblindness</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_snow" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual snow">Visual snow</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Auditory_processing_disorder" title="Auditory processing disorder">Auditory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amblyaudia" title="Amblyaudia">Amblyaudia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_agnosia" title="Auditory agnosia">Auditory agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_hallucination" title="Auditory hallucination">Auditory hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Auditory_verbal_agnosia" title="Auditory verbal agnosia">Auditory verbal agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Cortical_deafness" title="Cortical deafness">Cortical deafness</a></li>

<li><a href="Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Microwave_auditory_effect" title="Microwave auditory effect">Microwave auditory effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Music-specific_disorders" title="Music-specific disorders">Music-specific disorders</a></li>

<li><a href="Palinopsia" title="Palinopsia">Palinopsia</a></li>

<li><a href="Spatial_hearing_loss" title="Spatial hearing loss">Spatial hearing loss</a></li>

<li><a href="Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Balance_disorder" title="Balance disorder">Vestibular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Vertigo" title="Vertigo">Vertigo</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthine_fistula" title="Labyrinthine fistula">Labyrinthine fistula</a></li>

<li><a href="Labyrinthitis" title="Labyrinthitis">Labyrinthitis</a></li>

<li><a href="M%C3%A9ni%C3%A8re's_disease" title="Ménière's disease">Ménière's disease</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">Olfactory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anosmia" title="Anosmia">Anosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysosmia" title="Dysosmia">Dysosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperosmia" title="Hyperosmia">Hyperosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyposmia" title="Hyposmia">Hyposmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Olfactory_reference_syndrome" title="Olfactory reference syndrome">Olfactory reference syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Parosmia" title="Parosmia">Parosmia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantosmia" title="Phantosmia">Phantosmia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Taste_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Taste disorder">Gustatory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ageusia" title="Ageusia">Ageusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypergeusia" title="Hypergeusia">Hypergeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypogeusia" title="Hypogeusia">Hypogeusia</a></li>

<li><a href="Parageusia" class="mw-redirect" title="Parageusia">Parageusia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Somatosensory_disorder" title="Somatosensory disorder">Tactile</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Astereognosis" title="Astereognosis">Astereognosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Charcot%E2%80%93Marie%E2%80%93Tooth_disease" title="Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease">CMT disease</a></li>

<li><a href="Formication" title="Formication">Formication</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperesthesia" title="Hyperesthesia">Hyperesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoesthesia" title="Hypoesthesia">Hypoesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">Paresthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Tactile_hallucination" title="Tactile hallucination">Tactile hallucination</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nociception (pain)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">Hyperalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Hypoalgesia" title="Hypoalgesia">Hypoalgesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_dissociation" class="mw-redirect" title="Pain dissociation">Pain dissociation</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_pain" title="Phantom pain">Phantom pain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proprioception</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Asomatognosia" title="Asomatognosia">Asomatognosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Phantom_limb" title="Phantom limb">Phantom limb syndrome</a></li>

<li><a href="Somatoparaphrenia" title="Somatoparaphrenia">Somatoparaphrenia</a></li>

<li><a href="Supernumerary_phantom_limb" title="Supernumerary phantom limb">Supernumerary phantom limb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multimodal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Agnosia" title="Agnosia">Agnosia</a></li>

<li><a href="Allochiria" title="Allochiria">Allochiria</a></li>

<li><a href="Derealization" title="Derealization">Derealization</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallucination" title="Hallucination">Hallucination</a></li>

<li><a href="Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Synesthesia" title="Synesthesia">Synesthesia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biases and errors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusion</a> · <a href="Pareidolia" title="Pareidolia">Pareidolia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852504#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata644" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q852504#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata644" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85087558">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007545930905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/a6a22c9a-9384-4f0e-bfdc-5c18d3884bc1">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-04-08" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Motion_perception&oldid=1284642368">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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